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You are listening to the BBC World Service, and this is the Science Hour with me, R__ P__, bringing you 60 minutes of the latest in science, technology and health, including Europe's first Mars rover taking its first steps, or wheel turn. / Three, two, one ... / Not actually on Mars yet __ __ on a replica landscape near London. A visit to __ mission control coming up. And; The man who survived a shark attack. / I knew I had that fish, and I was just about to squeeze the trigger, when the huge cr_sh and crunch hit me in the chest, knocked the gun out of my hand and mask off my face and I was __ed through the water. / We'll hear how science could reduce the danger.
Now, step outside on a clear night, and you are likely to enjoy the view of the brilliant disc of the moon. It wasn't always there. Around four and a half billion years ago, the Earth was a lone planet, somewhat smaller than it is now, until another stray proto-planet crushed into us and the moon formed out of the remnants. The craters on its surface are a reminder that violent collisions continued and, not so violent, even to the present day, and space rocks and dust continue to fall on the Earth as well, a hundred tons a day, in fact. 地球にはもともと月はなかった。別の星が地球にぶつかり、その際に飛び散った残骸から月が形成された。月面のクレーターは、最初の大きな衝突の後も激しい衝突が続いたことの名残である。それほど激しくはないが、その余波は現在にも及んでおり、いまだに地球には一日に 100 トンほどの岩石や塵が降り注いでいる。
But, when did that cata__mic, literally Earth-shaking smash-up happen? Radioactive elements have given astro__s one clock to time it by. But now researchers have used / from materials that arrived after the event. Dr. S__ Jacobson, who's based at __ __ Observatory in France, is one of them.
What we find is that the moon formed approximately / 95 million years after the start of the solar system. This __ed controversy that existed in the radioactive dating community. Was the moon formed early 10 to 30 million years __ __ 70 to 100 million years? And, because our method of dating / independent of the radioactive dating systems, we can break this controversy.
Dr. S__ J__, whose / lunar dates are published in Nature. Astro__ / following / twists and turns / birth / new dates add to the complexity.
We thought that the Earth was hit by another planetary-sized body, something about the size of Mars / half the size of the Earth. And it / g__ing blow / blew a huge amount of debris / shattered the impacting body and / sort of / ring system around the Earth, from which the moon formed. Now we are very unclear that this situation / actually happened like that / to test this scenario is to look at the composition / moon rocks and contrast __ with the earth / key thing that / look for are the isotopes __ these are just __ lighter or heavier versions of the familiar chemical elements. And, the racio of isotopes / different celestial bodies reflects where they formed in relation to the sun. The moon and the Earth we now know have virtually identical isotopic compositions. In other words, the moon is essentially made of rocks from the Earth, not from another impacting body.月の材料は地球からとられたのであって、地球に衝突した天体からとられたのではない。
/ So, now focusing on S__ team's clock, as I read about it, I had an impression of a kind of / hourglass / sands of time falling on to the Earth and on to the moon. That's not exactly what they've done. But what have they done?
Yes, __ we know from seizmology / that / Earth has __ __ core / nickel and other heavy metals. And, that can only form when the Earth is molten and / heavy elements sink down to the center of the Earth / __ type of element, called __ __ elements / these like to bind to iron / so / effectively be / remove / from the surface layers during core formation. They're locked away from us forever. Now the last wide-scale melting event is thought to be the formation of the moon. So, what S__ has done is to look at the inventories of these __ic elements on the Earth today, and they are things like / gold or __ / some / metallic elements / all been brought to Earth after the moon-forming impact. What __ __ is that only 1% of the Earth's mass was accumulated after this ... this moon-forming impact, and that pushes the date of the impact / quite late / about 75 million years after the beginning of the solar system. / That sounds like / calibrated / clock / quite nicely, but how accurate is it? / It's as accurate as this method is probably likely to be / I'll tell you how / actually / date of the moon's formation, its birthdate, is 95 million years ago plus or minus / that's better than the previous estimate / previous / important thing is, really, that, he ... he virtually rules out any moon-forming impact earlier than 40 million years. / And why is that important? / It's not just a question of the astrophysics of the solar system. Everything we look at in the oldest rocks on the Earth seem to suggest that life started pretty early on the Earth. So, a few tens of millions of years is actually quite important in that timeframe. And, so, we would like to know, when the Earth formed, how it formed, how quickly it formed / what __ conditions were there, which subsequently allowed life to form, and, if / giant impact / melting the planet is not good for starting life. So, if life started pretty soon after that, maybe that suggests that, life is pretty quick process to start / understand / initial conditions of the Earth which subsequently led to the origin of life. / Astro__ and science writer / BBC science reporter James M__'s with me. James, the date may have changed a little bit, but that's not the only mystery that surrounds the, uh, the formation of the moon / That's right. / another problem / theory of __ giant impact forming the moon is to do with water, because, if the moon was formed from magma released by the Earth in this hot, firely event, then you'd expect all the water on the moon to have evaporated, to have boiled off. But actually, when you look at a mineral on the moon's surface, which happens to be called a__, you see __ __ __ hydrogen in the ... inside the mineral, and hydrogen suggests that there once was a great deal of water __ __ __ so much hudrogen in this ... in this lunar a__, that the moon could have been covered by up to a meter of water when it was first formed. And, uh, so, if the moon did have that much water / really / much / impact. But, now, thanks to a new study from __ University of California, __ / they've found out that a__ may actually have deceived us all this time, and that's appropriate because the word a__ actually comes from the Greek word meaning "deceipt" __ clue was in the name, uh, it turns out that a__ will __ __ hydrogen / as a kind of like a last resort if there's no / chlorine__ / available in the atmosphere, and, so, the amount of hydrogen in the a__ / isn't really a clue to how much water was over there, it doesn't tell us anything / it's quite possible that __ the giant impact theory was correct after all. / So, / no swimming / billions of years ago. /
most of / moon / does come from / brought back by / Apolo mission that went to the moon / in the late 60's and early 70's / of Mars / likewise / transformed / recently / by the robotic rovers, Spirit, Opportunity and Curiosity, that / since 2005. Some / images / sent back / stunning / but / also excellent / in / exo-Mars mission / -owned robotic rover equipped / analyze the environment / two meters / ground / to seek evidence / past or present life. / defence in space / have already built three prototype / start building / real thing / next / before / they've built a realistic Mars Yard containing three hundred tons of sand / to simulate the surface / red planet. Reporter / S__ Nelson / always wanted / to space / launch / Three, two, one ... / Well, it's not every day that I get to say that I'm standing on Mars. But I am, in the corner of the Mars Yard, / new Mars Yard / in / a / rock, completely / boot, and my feet are covered by the fine grains of orange and black sand that's just been imported into here / to make it look as realistic as possible / lots of rocks strewn ahead, and three prototype Mars rovers / that are very slowly moving ahead / across the surface / how Mars exploration is gonna be done. / I'm __ __. I'm the project manager here at __ Defence in Space / in charge of the project Mars Rover. / How different is this Mars Yard / to the one that you __ before? / completely / more than twice the original size / couldn't achieve / able to actually have / much better representation of the rocks, the types of rocks and the actual surface itself / we had to select the sand / right grade, very fine sand, and __ __ right texture / in order to simulate / representative / this is roughly 30 meters __ __ compared to / roughly 12 meters / before / in terms of / color of the sand / bright orane / seen / images from previous rovers on Mars / quite steep inclin__s, and that's obviously deliberate? / Yes, it is. Uh, because what we want to do is / put / through their paces to actually confirm / able to negotiate / probably encounter on the Martian surface. So, there are some slopes / has to avoide in order to actually find / safe passage through to its destination. / prototype rovers / at the moment. One of them / original one from / ago / nicknamed B__ / you've also got / two other __s, haven't you? / So, we've got / first / then / what / further enhancement / of the capabilities / particularly in locomotion system and the cameras / didn't have / full design / now / because / through another design iteration / now independently steerable. And, so, that is now put in place on the B__ model ... / Who came up / come on / there was a competition in the project team / the name has to start with the "Br" / primarily to prove / locomotion / mobility / function / because / 15 minutes / control the rover live, real-time. So, we have to rely on / algor__thms / developing to help achieve that objective / in this yard / Hi. I'm / chief executive / attention today, naturally, is / Mars Yard itself / structure of the rover / three prototypes there, / Yeah, / but / so much more / British science / on / rover / sience / drives / whole design of the vehicles / what / got to do / in terms of / from our own European rover. That's / UK-lead / we've got involvement / and then / gonna be involved in choosing the landing site, and then deciding where / making / sends back. / And this / rover / instruments / looks naked / real thing / amazing analytical laboratory, __ miniturized mechanical __ machinery / reduce them into / fine particle / instrumentation. So, it's an amazing project __ __ laboratory / another planet / across the Martian surface / past all the photographers and cameramen, and, go to the one that's slowly moving / put / very close to its wheels. ... I think that little tinkling sound / grains of sand being reflected from the inside rims of the wheels / different / spat out in different angles / robotic exploration of European Space Agency. / How unique / facility / like / be easy to make Mars yards all over Europe / yes, in principle, / difficult / important / benefit of it / to use it properly / for / capabilities and / design of the rover that are being tested in the Mars Yard / You have remember / roving / Mars is not easy / previous mission / failed / because of that / it's real / any / So, you have to make sure that you know how this will affect / your design / for people here / is essential. / __ __ ending that report from S_ N__. / James / science / with / it seems to me / quite / simulate Mars on Earth / different / for robot / right / even harder for human, I think / exactly what / another Mars mission / Mars I / reality / create a human colony on Mars, sending people / one-way ticket / surface / idea / back here on Earth / that's right / about to begin building / simulation, habitation module where / test / like to live on Mars / facilities / Martian colonists will have to, uh, have to put up with, and I guess, / contestant / applicants / initial / go / some sort of training and team-building exercises on this ... on this Mars Yards / their own / suppose / simulate the fear of / one / walk / end of it / real thing / Mars / adventure / by comparison. / Yeah / quality / things like / a can-do attitude / in__able spirit / have / centimeters / does that rule you or / out / rules / mars / I don't think / contender / I'm sure it __ be all the better / thanks / James / group / decided to collaboratively contribute their knowledge and writing / wikipedia / and, in 2011, when two designers / open source construction kit / desining / wiki / communities / in just a few days. You download / get / even need / that many tools / they / necessity / necessity for new / series of / Christchurch / New Z__ in 2010 / so, easy to / affordable / live / one / finding out more about the W__ project from Danny / in / hit by this / very / September / really / big / quake / almost unprecedented degree of shaking / severity / faced with / situation / damaged / some cases / actually / following the earthquake / temporary accomodation / caravans / garages / after the / lot of activities / where / sharing / bit of support / working / new / housing / temporary / our conversation / ideas / so / really clever engineering / Wiki / platform to create / currently / using ordinary off-the-shelf plywood sheets / meters / down / within / back of / reassemble / few volunteers / temporary / timeframe / but / solution / five / often / becomes / software / non-technical / imagine / future / kitchen / application / comes out / other end / cutting / cutting / facility / your garage / facility / which looks a little / flatpack / box / assembled by / fun / themselves / no requirement / assemble the building / very / coffee / very common / bit / bond-raising / rapidly / how does / put / Yeah, absolutely / technology / building / nine hundred / zero-fixing / talking / wooden pegs / together / together / no screws, no power tools / what / here / this / we / fairly easily / there / different sound / pegs / up / is / deputy mayor / Christchurch / amazing creativity / powers / right / open source / to / create / concept / anything / something / basic / human / as housing / lovely / long / all / things / live in one / make it / without / you know / qualification / short / constantly deriving / innovation / lovely / deputy mayor / speaking / more / technology / minds of sharks / welcome / reporter / black / definition / sugar / any / tricks / behavior / squeeze / headache / but / hear / all / pill / united / power / wonder / making / badly / influence / result / simply / fooling / about / patterns / small / very / on / fancy / fact / machine / electrical / none / radiologist / give / feedback / down / measure / all / body / after / real / using / collected / seeing / came / monitor / from / wasn't / receive / either / sleep / last / last / random / refreshing / measure / exactly / effective / irrelevant / themselves / lab / any / asked / what / scale / had / already / felt / prior / talking / measuring / first / then / form / point / how / we / four / how / because / affected / one /

(Source: http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/worldservice/science/science_20140406-1509a.mp3